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The /etc/hosts file is a fundamental system file that plays a key role in how your Linux machine resolves domain names to IP addresses. It's essentially a local, manually managed DNS table. When you type a hostname like www.google.com into your browser, your system first checks /etc/hosts to see if there's a corresponding IP address listed there before sending a query to an external DNS server. This local check makes resolution extremely fast since no network communication is required. 🎯 Primary Uses * Blocking Websites: This is a common use for parents or system administrators. By mapping a domain to your local machine's loopback address (127.0.0.1), you can effectively prevent access to a site. For example, adding 127.0.0.1 twitter.com will block access to Twitter on your machine. * Local Development: Developers use the hosts file to test web applications before they go live on a public server. By adding an entry like 192.168.1.10 myapp.local, they can access their development server using a user-friendly hostname instead of an IP address. This mimics a live environment. * Network Shortcuts: You can create simple, memorable hostnames for devices on your local network. Instead of remembering 192.168.1.50 for your network printer, you could add 192.168.1.50 printer to your hosts file and simply type printer into your browser or command line to access it. ✍️ Editing the File The /etc/hosts file requires root permissions to edit. You can use a text editor like nano or vim with the sudo command. A good practice is to always back up the original file before making any changes. * Backup: sudo cp /etc/hosts /etc/hosts.bak * Edit: sudo nano /etc/hosts * Add your entries: Add new lines with the format IP_address hostname. * Save and Exit: Press Ctrl+O to save and Ctrl+X to exit in nano. After editing and saving, the changes take effect immediately without needing to restart any services. 🛡️ Important Notes * Comments: Lines starting with a # are ignored by the system and can be used to add comments for clarity. For example, # Blocked for security.

When setting up storage on Linux, RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) helps balance speed, redundancy, and capacity. Each RAID level has trade-offs—here’s a quick reference you can keep in your sysadmin toolkit: 🔹 RAID 0 (Striping) - What it does: Splits data evenly across disks. - Pros: Maximum performance, all storage space usable. - Cons: No redundancy—if one disk fails, everything is lost. - Use case: Scratch data, non-critical high-speed workloads. 🔹 RAID 1 (Mirroring) - What it does: Duplicates data across disks. - Pros: Excellent redundancy, simple recovery if one disk fails. - Cons: Storage efficiency is 50% (half of total capacity is used for copies). - Use case: Critical systems, databases, or boot drives. 🔹 RAID 5 (Striping + Single Parity) - What it does: Spreads data and parity across disks. - Pros: Good balance of storage efficiency and redundancy. - Cons: Can only survive one disk failure; rebuilds are slow and stressful on remaining disks. - Use case: File servers where cost efficiency matters. 🔹 RAID 6 (Striping + Double Parity) - What it does: Like RAID 5, but with two parity blocks. - Pros: Can survive two disk failures. - Cons: More overhead, slower writes, requires at least 4 disks. - Use case: Large storage arrays where redundancy is critical. 🔹 RAID 10 (1+0, Mirrored Stripes) - What it does: Stripes data across mirrored pairs. - Pros: High speed and strong redundancy. - Cons: Needs at least 4 disks, only 50% storage efficiency. - Use case: Databases and applications needing both speed and fault tolerance. 🔹 Other Levels (less common but useful): - RAID 2, 3, 4: Rarely used today due to inefficiency. - RAID 50 / 60: Nested levels combining RAID 5/6 with striping for extra performance. - JBOD (Just a Bunch of Disks): Not true RAID—disks are concatenated for capacity, no redundancy. 👉 Takeaway: - Choose RAID 0 for speed, RAID 1 for safety, RAID 5/6 for balance, and RAID 10 for performance + redundancy. - RAID ≠ Backup. Always pair RAID with regular off-system backups.

Syntax vs. Semantics in Linux Commands --- * **Syntax** = The *form* of a command (how you type it). * **Semantics** = The *meaning* or *effect* of the command (what it actually does). Example: ``` ls -l /home ``` * ✅ Correct **syntax**: `ls` followed by an option `-l` and a directory path `/home`. * **Semantics**: "List the contents of `/home` in long format." But if you typed: ``` ls /home -l ``` * This is still **syntactically valid** (the shell won’t complain). * But the **semantics** are different: `ls` interprets `-l` as a *filename* inside `/home`, not as an option! You’ll likely get an error: ``` ls: cannot access '/home/-l': No such file or directory ``` 👉 Moral: In Linux, getting the **syntax** right avoids errors, but understanding the **semantics** ensures the command does what you *intend*.

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